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RESULTS

Data collection for the Family Development Project is still underway. We will post articles on this web page as they are published.

ARTICLE: Positive and negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on families involved in the Family Development Project

  • The COVID-19 pandemic had an unprecedented impact on families, particularly families with young children, including elevated risk for family dysfunction and parent and child mental health concerns. 

  • During the first 6 months of the pandemic, participants in our study reported significant hardships, largely in the form of disrupted family routines, challenges at work, and concerns about health and safety of family members. 

  • Participants in our study also reported positive impacts of the pandemic (i.e., flourishing), such as increased time spent with family members and improved relationships with family and friends. 

  • Parents with greater mental health difficulties and increased stress prior to the pandemic reported more negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. In contrast, parents with greater well-being and a better interparental relationship before the pandemic reported greater flourishing across the first 6 months of the pandemic. 

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • Greater pandemic hardships predicted increases in parental internalizing problems (e.g., depression, anxiety) and mental health difficulties among their preschool-age children. Greater hardships also predicted decreases in parental well-being and interparental relationship quality. 

Article: Modifiable factors during pregnancy associated with risk for internalizing problems up to 2-years postpartum for both mothers and fathers

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  • Mothers and fathers are at elevated risk for internalizing problems (e.g., depression, anxiety) during pregnancy and the postpartum period, and identifying modifiable factors that confer risk or protect against elevated symptoms may help inform interventions that promote parental wellbeing across this family transition.  

  • We found that 21.2% of mothers and 7.8% of fathers experienced clinical elevations in internalizing problems that persisted up to 2-years postpartum. Another 29.0% of fathers experienced subclinical elevations in internalizing problems (e.g., symptoms that were elevated but not above the clinical cutoff). 

  • Although existing efforts focus primarily on mothers, our findings emphasize the importance of repeated screening for internalizing problems across pregnancy and postpartum for both mothers and fathers.   

  • Results also suggest that enhancing the couple’s relationship during pregnancy may be particularly important for parental mental health.  

  • Emotion regulation skills and qualities of the intimate relationship (support and emotional intimacy) were identified as protective factors for fathers.  

  • We found that mothers’ pregnancy-related concerns and fathers’ internalizing symptoms during pregnancy predicted clinically elevated maternal internalizing problems.  

ARTICLE: Specific features of maternal anxiety during pregnancy uniquely impact postpartum outcomes

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To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • Approximately 1 in 5 mothers experience anxiety during pregnancy, with some women experiencing fears and worries specific to pregnancy, childbirth, and the transition to parenthood. 

  • These results suggest that medical providers may be uniquely suited to create a safe space that allows expectant mothers to discuss their pregnancy-related concerns, particularly concerns about themselves, without fear of judgment to improve outcomes for both mothers and their infants. 

  • Mothers’ concerns about themselves during pregnancy were also linked to more difficulties bonding with infants across the first 6 months postpartum. 

  • We found that mothers’ concerns about themselves during pregnancy (e.g., concerns about developing medical problems or being harmed during delivery), but not mothers’ concerns about their babies, predicted worse mental and physical health across the first 6 months postpartum. 

ARTICLE: A mutually responsive and warm couple relationship maintains and promotes relationship satisfaction across from pregnancy to 2 years postpartum

  • Research on the pregnancy and postparum period has largely focused on first-time parents, overlooking risk for relationship satisfaction decline among experienced parents

  • The transition to parenthood can create a context in which couples become less happy with their relationship

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • We found that not all parents become less satisfied with their couple relationship across the transition to parenthood.

  • Warmth, responsiveness, and teamwork in the couple relationship during pregnancy protected first-time moms and experienced couples, with fewer financial resources, from declining relationship satisfaction across the transition to parenthood

ARTICLE: Difficult childbirth increases risk for trauma symptoms across 2 years postpartum

  • There is heightened risk for maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) across pregnancy and the postpartum, and difficult pregnancy and childbirth experiences may contribute to elevated PTSD symptoms.

  • We found that 12.5% of mothers experienced elevated traumatic intrusions (e.g., nightmares or flashbacks related to potentially traumatic events) that persisted up to 2 years following childbirth

  • Labor and delivery complications were linked to elevated intrusion symptoms above and beyond past exposure to trauma and pregnancy-related anxiety.  

  • Our results support the importance of increased screening for maternal PTSD across postpartum and early childhood, especially for mothers who experienced more complications during childbirth.  

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

Article: The impact of self-objectification during pregnancy on maternal and infant wellbeing

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  • Women may experience increased objectification (i.e., being reduced to their appearance and body parts) as their bodies undergo significant physical changes during pregnancy. 

  • Women who internalize sociocultural norms of attractiveness (e.g., the “thin ideal”) and feel pressure to conform to these expectations may be at increased risk for mental health difficulties, such as body dissatisfaction and depression, during pregnancy.  

  • We found that maternal depression and body dissatisfaction were linked to greater body surveillance (e.g., thinking a lot about how one looks) during pregnancy. Depression and body dissatisfaction were associated with mother-infant bonding difficulties and more infant socioemotional difficulties.  

  • Results highlight the importance of prevention efforts to counteract societal objectification and promote maternal and infant wellbeing. For example, media campaigns that promote body functionality (rather than focusing on appearance) can help normalize the beauty and diversity of pregnant and postpartum bodies.  

ARTICLE: Interpersonal security is associated with less sexual objectification

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To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • Sexual objectification – reducing a person to their appearance, body, or sex appeal – is a significant risk factor for negative health outcomes, especially for women.

  • Further, feeling a sense of safety and security in one’s intimate relationship was associated with less objectification within intimate relationships.

  • We found that, across two samples, attachment insecurity (fear of abandonment/avoidance of emotional intimacy) was linked to increased risk for experiencing sexual objectification from others, as well as sexually objectifying self and others.

  • Attachment theory suggests that patterns of engaging in close relationships originate in early childhood experiences and are relatively stable throughout the lifespan.

ARTICLE: High-quality partner support reduces pregnancy stress and postpartum bonding impairments 

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  • High levels of stress during pregnancy can compromise parent-infant bonding during the postpartum period. Impairments in bonding can set the infant on a less optimal developmental trajectory (e.g., poorer emotion regulation ability in childhood). Our results suggest that fathers also experience elevated stress during pregnancy, at similar levels as pregnant women, posing risk for bonding impairments.

  • Partner support minimizes prenatal stress experienced by both mothers and fathers. However, it’s not just receiving more support that is important; the quality of support and whether it is matched to what the partner desires is critical (e.g., well-intended advice might actually be counterproductive if not desired). This is the case for both mothers and fathers. 

  • Providing support – not just receiving support – also appears to have protective effects during pregnancy. When moms provide high quality support to dads, this reduces pregnancy stress in moms and results in fewer mother-infant bonding impairments. Similarly, when dads provide high quality support to moms, this reduces pregnancy stress in dads and results in fewer father-infant bonding impairments. 

  • These results suggest that in the context of pregnancy, interventions should focus on improving communication and responsiveness between parents so that each person can ask for what they need to effectively cope with stress and tailor their support provision to meet the unique needs of their partner. 

ARTICLE: Negative mood and trauma symptoms during pregnancy impact parenting through parent-infant bonding

  • Parental psychopathology during pregnancy has the potential to impact parenting behaviors (e.g., sensitivity, acceptance) throughout early childhood, as well as child outcomes

  • Mothers who reported more traumatic avoidance symptoms during pregnancy (e.g., avoiding thoughts about something bad that happened) were less emotionally aware during parenting interactions with their 2-year-olds

  • Parents with more negative mood during pregnancy experienced greater difficulties bonding with their infant during the first 6 months following childbirth, which in turn predicted less responsive parenting behaviors at child age 2

  • Results highlight the importance of prenatal intervention efforts promoting parental mental health and the parent-child relationship

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

Article: Attachment security predicts postpartum partner support through healthy communication about emotion

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • During the postpartum period, partner support has the potential to promote family well-being by mitigating stress related to changes experienced during this transition. Attachment security (i.e., feeling safe and secure in interpersonal relationships) can impact partner communication and support dynamics.

  • Interviews and surveys were used to determine the extent to which attachment – resulting from childhood caregiving experiences -- impacted the quality of support provided and received by partners during the first 6 months following childbirth.

  • If partners were higher in attachment anxiety (e.g., fearful of abandonment) or attachment avoidance (e.g., uncomfortable with intimacy), they were less skilled at discussing their emotions with one another in a constructive manner which undermined postpartum support.

  • Results suggest that helping couples talk about difficult emotions during pregnancy (e.g., apprehension about becoming a parent, fear about the childbirth experience) might help to promote healthier couple dynamics after childbirth for couples who are at risk for interpersonal dysfunction

ARTICLE: Aggressive tactics used during arguments can significantly undermine mental health during pregnancy

  • Arguments with partners can escalate and result in the use of psychologically or physically aggressive tactics.

  • Women tended to experience symptoms consistent with trauma, including intrusive thoughts and memories and avoiding reminders of the event.

  • We found that psychological aggression in the form of insulting, shouting at, swearing at, or putting down a partner had stronger associations with mental health during pregnancy than physical aggression.

  • Arguments do not need to rise to the level of physical aggression (e.g., pushing or shoving partner) to be detrimental.

  • Men exhibited those trauma-related symptoms as well, but presented with additional symptoms, such as those related to depression (i.e., negative mood) and other forms of anxiety (i.e., panic, social anxiety).

  • These results demonstrate how important it is to build effective conflict management skills during pregnancy. Building healthy communication skills to manage disagreements--which are inevitable in relationships--is crucial for the mental health of both partners during pregnancy

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: A high degree of support and connection protect couples during pregnancy​

  • Stress brought home from work or relationships outside of the family has the potential to harm the couple relationship; however, your partner can also be a vital source of support and can help you to navigate life’s challenges.

  • Pregnancy can be an especially stressful time as you anticipate childbirth and new parenting roles, so having a solid foundation in your relationship is important.

  • Parents completed brief surveys over 14 days during pregnancy, and results suggest that greater daily stress was associated with less relationship satisfaction for both partners.

  • Despite the potential for stress to erode the relationship, having a strong connection and receiving high quality support (e.g., listening, boosting confidence, providing tangible assistance) protected against this risk.

  • These results highlight how important it is to maintain a strong connection with your partner during pregnancy and have open conversations about how you want to be supported when you are feeling overwhelmed or having a bad day.

  • Openly discussing your concerns about pregnancy, childbirth, and new parenting roles might also serve to connect you and help you navigate the ups and downs of this major life transition as a couple.

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: When women experiencing trauma symptoms receive high quality social support from their partners, they cope with their feelings better

  • After experiencing an extremely stressful event (for example, experiencing violence in a relationship, being in a major car accident, learning about the sudden death of a loved one), it's not uncommon to experience distress, or trauma symptoms, related to that experience. Results from the Family Development Project suggest that women experiencing trauma symptoms related to a stressful experience cope better on a day-to-day basis when they receive above high-quality support from their partners. In fact, trauma symptoms over the past month no longer impacted day to day coping difficulties among women when support from their partners was above average quality or higher.

  • Furthermore, when women reported higher levels of trauma symptoms, their partners were more likely to use unhealthy coping strategies (avoiding their thoughts and feelings) on a day-to-day basis as well.

  • This was not the case for fathers. Fathers experiencing trauma symptoms did not cope better or worse on a day-to-day basis, based on the level of support their partners provided.

  • It may be that women are more likely to reach out for support when they are distressed if they learn from a young age to rely on others for social support. Alternatively, men may experience greater benefit when they receive support less directly from their partners.

  • Results have implications for the development of interventions. Prenatal interventions for women might be improved by adding in a focus on the couple’s health and wellbeing. Teaching partners to provide higher quality support during pregnancy, particularly among couples who are experiencing trauma-related distress, may help mothers cope better on a day-to-day basis.

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: A healthy couple relationship during pregnancy sets the stage for a healthy infant 

  • Family relationships are important for healthy child development but qualities of the couple relationship receive less attention during pregnancy and postpartum.

  • Results suggest that parents who have a higher quality relationship during pregnancy have healthier infants – specifically, when parents are better at managing conflict and are supportive and respectful of one another, their infants demonstrate healthier feeding, sleeping, and soothing behaviors (i.e., socioemotional functioning).

  • Having a high quality sexual relationship during pregnancy was also important for fostering healthy family dynamics that supported the infant.

  • To the extent that parents had more positive thoughts about and feelings toward their infant during the first month postpartum (i.e., strong bond) their infants were healthier.

  • These results highlight the importance of couples maintaining a high-quality relationship during pregnancy and parents developing a strong connection with their infant during the first weeks after childbirth.

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: Feeling humanized by your partner during pregnancy reduces body dissatisfaction, depression, and sexual dissatisfaction 

  • Women experience visible changes to their bodies throughout pregnancy and postpartum that can lead to insecurities and concerns about cultural ideals of attractiveness which can undermine health and well-being.

  • Not only women, but also men, benefited from feeling like their partners appreciated them for more than just their physical attributes or attractiveness -- this highlights the importance of communicating what we value and appreciate about our partners and not assuming they already know.

  • Humanization was also associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms and greater satisfaction with sex in the couple relationship.

  • Feeling “humanized” by your partner plays a protective role -- Women who felt their partners could see beyond their pregnant bodies and valued them for their many attributes such as intellect, humor, kindness were less worried about how they looked to other people and were more satisfied with their bodies (e.g., felt more comfortable with how clothes fit the shape of their bodies and how their bodies looked).​

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: Multiple elements of your relationship with your partner determine how happy you are in your relationship during pregnancy​

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • Results from the Family Development Project suggest that multiple elements of your relationship predict how happy you are with your relationship during pregnancy. Parents were more satisfied with their relationships if they reported a high degree of trust and emotional closeness, strong ability to navigate conflict, satisfying sexual experiences, high quality of partner support, and respect and acceptance as reported during the interviews completed during the laboratory visit. Thus, it is not enough to only manage areas of disagreement or tension--which is often the focus of couple interventions. In fact, it is just as important to promote several positive relationship behaviors during pregnancy.

  • Some elements of the relationship were more important for mothers compared to fathers – having a close emotional bond and feeling respected was key for mothers whereas being able to effectively navigate conflict and disagreement was particularly important for fathers.

  • For first-time parents, it was important that fathers felt respected by their partner and had room for independence; whereas, for parents who already had children living in the home, it was most important for mothers to feel valued and appreciated by their partner.

  • Results have implications for building healthy family dynamics – the interview used in this research might be a valuable tool for checking in on the relationship between parents during pregnancy to ultimately identify strengths to build on and areas of growth.

ARTICLE: Mutually responsive orientation and why it’s important: Developing a new way of measuring couple interactions

  • Based on observations of interactions of couples during pregnancy, we developed a new way of capturing how in sync and responsive partners are to one another.

  • Couples participated in two interactions in which they planned a vacation and provided support to one another about a personal issue. We then applied an observational coding system to rate the extent to which each couple interacted in ways that showed teamwork, cooperation, and positive emotional expression to one another (in other words, a “mutually responsive orientation” or MRO). 

  • We found that couples who showed more of a mutually responsive orientation also reported that they are happier in their relationships, more supportive of one another, and have less frequent and less severe arguments.

  • We also found that this unique way of engaging with one another as a couple predicted the health and well-being of each partner. Specifically, when partners showed higher MRO, they reported being less depressed and anxious, having less disordered eating and fewer substance use problems, and experiencing higher levels of well-being, as well feeling more comfortable in interpersonal relationships

  • A next step in this line of research is to explore how to best enhance mutually responsive orientation in couple relationships to promote better health and relationship functioning.

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

ARTICLE: A strong couple relationship during pregnancy can reduce risk for depression

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • There is a notable spike in risk for depression during pregnancy and the postpartum period, especially for women, and the way parents relate to one another during this important time in the family life cycle might help reduce this risk.

  • Parents completed in-depth interviews during pregnancy, during which each parent talked about various areas of their intimate relationship with their partners (e.g., degree of comfort sharing personal things, feeling accepted and respected, managing arguments). Parents also completed surveys to measure recent experiences with depression and the personality trait neuroticism which is a biologically-based risk factor for depression.

  • Results suggest that there are three key aspects of the couple relationship that are particularly important for reducing risk for depression during pregnancy: conflict management for women and both social support and a high-quality sexual relationship for men. In other words, women who reported better conflict management with their partner, and men who reported better social support, as well as a higher quality sexual relationship with their partner, are less likely to be depressed. 

  • This suggests that there are multiple aspects of the couple relationship that should be strengthened during pregnancy to reduce the risk for developing depression in both women and men.

ARTICLE: Self-compassion mediates the link between attachment security and intimate relationship quality for couples navigating pregnancy​

To read more about this article, please click here. 

To receive a copy of the full article, please email familylab@unl.edu

  • Self-compassion mediates the link between attachment security and intimate relationship quality for couples navigating pregnancy.

  • Partners who were kinder to themselves when facing distress or discomfort had higher quality relationships with their partners.

  • Feeling secure in relationships (e.g., people can be counted on; it is safe to be emotionally vulnerable with others) plays a protective role during this transition in part by promoting self-compassion or the tendency to respond to oneself with kindness and understanding that all people experience difficulties.

  • When partners were more compassionate toward themselves, couples had better emotional intimacy and were better at navigating conflict. Further, men reported receiving better support from their partners, and women reported feeling more respected.

  • This highlights how being compassionate towards ourselves, particularly during a period of rapid change and adjustment such as pregnancy, can improve how connected we feel to our partners, how well we communicate and resolve conflicts, and even the degree of support and respect received in our relationships.

Feel free to explore other research that has been conducted by the director of the Family Development Project, Rebecca Brock. Ph.D.

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